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Bodies and Structures 2.0: Deep-Mapping Modern East Asian History

Yakou Village

Yakou village is over 100 li from the county seat of Jinjiang, in Quanzhou Prefecture. The Shi lineage has gathered together and lives there in great numbers, with both good and bad people living together as one. The landscape is entirely composed of mountains facing the coast, and from the bay in front of the village it is only 10 li south to get to the the "outer ocean," a location through which all northbound boats must pass.*

Yakou Village is the ancestral home of the Shi lineage, whose surname dominates the village even today. In the Qing dynasty, lineages like the Shi who controlled coastal Fujianese villages like Yakou were extremely large and powerful. Lineages like the Shi were governed by a council of elders responsible for education, public works, investment, and arbitrating civil and (potentially) criminal disputes within the lineage. In other words, they were largely independent. The memorial about Shi Hou skirts around the issue somewhat in order to avoid alienating powerful lineage members, but the tone of the above quote indicates a common wary attitude among Qing officials towards lineages like the Shi and places like Yakou.

Yakou occupied a particularly strategic position within the political geography of southern Fujian. The village lay within the jurisdiction of the Jinjiang County Magistrate and the Quanzhou Prefect, both of whom had their offices in the city of Quanzhou. But Yakou is about as far from Quanzhou as possible within Jinjiang county. The village was also in the jurisdiction of the Xing-Quan-Yong Circuit Intendant, whose offices were in Xiamen, a city that also housed the Fujian Admiral (shuishi tidu) and the bulk of the Qing's southeastern navy. But as the map below shows, by virtue of Shenhu Bay, Yakou is out of sight of Xiamen, hidden by a bulky peninsula.

*Junji chu hanwen lufu zhouzhe (Grand Council Chinese-Language Palace Memorial Copies), Beijing: First Historical Archives, 03-4007-048, DG 18.10.29

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The Coastal Opium Trade in 1830s Fujian 62 Peter D. Thilly image_header 5385 2021-03-27T15:56:41-04:00 24.6500, 118.6667 Chimmo (Shenhu) Bay 24.66767, 118.64379 Yakou 22.4167, 113.8000 Lintin 24.4798, 118.0819 Xiamen 23.1167, 113.2500 Canton (Guangzhou) 24.9139, 118.5858 Quanzhou 39.9288, 116.3889 Beijing 23.354, 116.6821 Shantou 22.1667, 113.5500 Macao 26.0614, 119.3061 Fuzhou 18.9750, 72.8258 Bombay (Mumbai) 22.71956, 75.85772 Malwa 51.5142, -0.0931 London 1.2833, 103.8500 Singapore 22.5626, 88.3630 Calcutta (Kolkata) 25.59409, 85.13756 Patna 25.3167, 83.0104 Benares (Varanasi) 22.40468, 113.80462 22.39706, 113.63021 22.28973, 113.94126 Hong Kong 22.4142, 113.91534 23.43193, 117.09911 24.4167, 118.12743 24.35603, 118.15146 24.60943, 118.45738 24.52075, 118.56243 24.66804, 118.67326 24.84062, 118.70554 24.82504, 118.76116 24.87738, 118.89505 25.03177, 119.05092 4.69513, 96.74939 Aceh 15.29932, 74.12399 Goa -6.16519, 39.19891 Zanzibar -4.04347, 39.6682 Mombasa 11.12712, 78.65689 Hosur 22.57264, 88.36389 5.41413, 100.32875 Penang 14.59951, 120.98421 Manila 24.47983, 118.08942 23.6567, 116.62275 Chaozhou 22.19874, 113.54387 12.78549, 45.01865 Aden 1832-1838 Peter D. Thilly Opium, Opium Smuggling, Fujian, Yakou Village, Jinjiang County, Jardine-Matheson, Opium War
This module tells the story of how a transnational coalition of maritime traders came together to operate one of the largest illicit drug markets in history. The importation of opium into China prior to 1832 occurred exclusively in the Pearl River Delta in Guangdong Province, where Fujianese and Cantonese ships would load up on the drug for delivery to other parts of the empire.
By the late 1830s, a huge portion of the import trade had migrated north into Fujian province. Every day after 1834 or so there were around a dozen British ships permanently anchored in strategic bays along the Fujian coast, importing tens of thousands of chests of opium directly into Fujian and exporting jaw-dropping quantities of treasure.
This module allows users to explore this dramatic explosion in the Fujianese opium trade, by focusing on the local story of Shenhu Bay in Jinjiang County, and the interactions between the Shi Lineage of Yakou Village and the Rees brothers of Jardine-Matheson and Dent & Co.
Module Layout
1. Navigating Sources and Mapping the Opium Trade. Introduces the goals of the module, provides necessary background information, and summarizes my interpretation of the archival sources that make up the two main body paths of the module.
2. The Case Against Shi Hou: A Qing Document. Constructed out of a primary source from the Qing territorial administration, a criminal case against a man called Shi Hou for escorting British opium ships to his hometown of Yakou Village.
3. The Jardine-Matheson Global Network. A re-creation of the largest and most influential British opium-trading firm, divided up conceptually and geographically, interspersed with images, videos, and primary source text from the Jardine-Matheson archive.
4. A Spatial History of Profit. Three short essays on a spatial history of profit and corruption on the Qing maritime frontier.
5. Conclusion: Space as Process. The concluding page to the module.
Link: Jardine-Matheson Archives Catalog (holdings are at the Cambridge University Library)
Link: First Historical Archives in Beijing
Spatialities of Qing Power in Southern Fujian
The mass arrests that took place in early 1837 were conducted by the territorial administration of the Qing state. The governing institutions that eventually caught Shi Hou in their nets were—like the smuggling network Shi operated—forged out of the interactions between people and structures. The above map shows the five most important sites in the political geography of the story told in this module. The map and descriptions below link to individual pages about each of those five places.
Beijing, imperial capital and site of the offices of the Board of Punishments and the Forbidden City, where the Emperor lived and worked.
Fuzhou, the site of the provincial capital and offices of the Fujian Governor and Fujian-Zhejiang Governor General.
Quanzhou, where the Quanzhou Prefect as well as the Jinjiang County Magistrate had their offices.
Xiamen, where the Xinghua-Quanzhou-Yongchun Circuit Intendant was housed together with the Admiral (Shuishi tidu) of the Fujian Navy.
Yakou Village, run with effective independence by a coalition of lineage elders, but located in the jurisdiction of the Jinjiang County Magistrate, the Quanzhou Prefect, and the Xinghua-Quanzhou-Yongchun Circuit Intendant.
Introducing the Source
The text of this path is drawn from File Number 03-4007-048 (DG 18/10/29) in the Number One Historical Archives in Beijing, in the Grand Council Chinese-Language Palace Memorial Copies collection (junji chu Hanwen lufu zouzhe).
This source is a Qing memorial: a report from a Provincial Governor to higher officials in Beijing. A memorial on a legal case like this is the final wrapped-up version of the case, written almost a year after the events it describes took place, based on the Governor’s reading of reports and documents on the case from the county, prefecture, and provincial judicial administration. The person who wrote this source was not present for the arrest or original interrogation of the subjects, and relied on reports forwarded from local officials. Documents like this can flatten testimony into judicial tropes, and can obscure information that might have created trouble for the lower officials who conducted the original arrests and interrogations, especially when there were potential implications of bribery and corruption.
The memorial that forms the base of this path describes the opium operations of a man named Shi Hou (Monkey Shi), a native of Yakou Village, Jinjiang County, Fujian Province. The memorial describes how Shi Hou and his fellow Shi lineage members "enticed" foreign opium merchants "Big and Little Li" north from Guangdong into Fujian in order to establish a smuggling depot in Shenhu Bay. At the end of the case, 111 individuals are listed as having been arrested or "at large" and wanted for opium crimes related to the case.
A note about the main character:
Shi Hou, along with many of the other people tied up in this case, were members of a large territorial lineage known as the Yakou Shi. Even today, the Shi lineage are the dominant surname group in Yakou village. In the Qing dynasty, the Yakou Shi occupied a position of power and privilege, dating back to the patriarch Shi Lang (1621-1696), who was the first Admiral (shuishi tidu) of the Xiamen Navy and helped the Qing put down Zheng Chenggong's maritime rebellion. By the early nineteenth century, maritime lineages like the Yakou Shi were a powerful and fiercely independent forces in local society. They were economically and politically diversified, sending off sons and nephews to Confucian academies or the Navy, or alternatively packing them on boats bound for Macao or Singapore. It is not irrelevant to this case that the lineage that Shi Hou came from was incredibly powerful, and lineage members continued opium trading after the arrests described here.
Spatial History questions for The Case Against Shi Hou
What is the spatiality of profit in this branch of the opium trade? What is the role of space in the methods used by the actors in this path (Shi Hou et al) to make their money?
Thinking in terms of the environment and physical geography that makes up the spatial setting of this story, how do the people in this case manipulate distances to their advantage, whether in terms of acquiring opium, selling opium, extorting money, or evading arrest?
Thinking in terms of discrete physical spaces (a boat, a small bay, a village, etc), what spaces are important to this history? What are the different ways one could evaluate the significance of spaces like the opium receiving ships, Shenhu Bay, and Yakou village?
Thinking more critically about applying the notion of "space as process" to this case, what different connections and transformations can we document as arising through the actions of the people in this case? How did Shi Hou, Big and Little Li, and the other actors described in this case build and transform different geographies of profit?
Yakou becomes a smuggling depot, attracting extortionists
Original: 海濱民人施猴、施漱寶在該海汊搭蓋草寮一所。顧覓已獲素識之漁船戶詹幅、詹返、詹合，轉顧已獲之林即及在逃之施歐、施梏，每船給錢三千文。前赴外洋向夷船買運煙土，即在草寮囤積轉販。旋因夷船乏水米，施猴等令詹幅等運往接濟。
The coastal residents Shi Hou and Shi Shubao built a grass hut near the sea locks at Yakou Village for storing and reselling opium. They then hired their longtime acquaintances, the Zhan family of fishermen (Zhan Fu, Zhan Fan, and Zhan He) who in turn hired Lin Ji, Shi Ou, and Shi Gu, offering a flat payment of 3,000 wen [copper cash] per boat to be split among the boatmen.
The team of men travelled to the outer ocean and bought opium from foreign boats, and then stored and resold it at the grass hut. Soon after, because the foreign boats were lacking in water and grain, Shi Hou ordered the Zhan boatmen to go assist them.
Original: 當施猴等在寮囤販之時，召現獲之民人朱光與該先斥革之泉州府書吏許枕潘知其通夷販煙得利，商同騙局，使同隨至施猴等寮內朱光誆稱本縣訪問令伊同許枕潘拿，如肯出本打點可免無事。施猴以許枕潘曾充府書，熟悉衙門，信以為實。當各送給番銀八十元而散。朱光旋用番銀一百五十元向施猴轉販煙土十塊，帶至他處賣與不識姓名人得利五十元。
While Shi Hou and his compatriots were storing opium in the grass shack, a neighbor named Zhu Guang (captured) along with the cashiered Quanzhou Prefecture clerk Xu Zhenpan learned of the Shi clan’s collusion with foreigners to smuggle opium for great profit, and came up with a plan to cheat them. Xu and Zhu traveled together to Shi Hou’s grass shack and Zhu Guang deceitfully told Shi Hou that the county inspectors had ordered him along with Xun Zhenpan to arrest Shi Hou, but if Shi could offer some money Xu and Zhu could get them out of the problem.
Shi Hou knew that Xu Zhenpan had worked in the Quanzhou prefect’s office and was familiar with the government office, so he believed the story and gave Zhu and Xu 80 silver taels each and they departed. Soon after, Zhu Guang returned to the grass shack and used 150 taels to buy 10 bricks of opium, which he resold at various places along the coast for a profit of 50 taels.
Source: Junji chu Hanwen lufu zouzhe (Grand Council Chinese-Language Palace Memorial Copies, often cited as LFZZ), Beijing: First Historical Archives, 03–4007–048, DG 18.10.29.
Discrete Physical Spaces 28 A list of some of the discrete physical spaces important to the spatial history of profit plain 2021-03-27T15:25:25-04:00 24.6500, 118.6667 Chimmo (Shenhu) Bay 22.4167, 113.8000 Lintin 22.5626, 88.3630 Calcutta (Kolkata) 18.9750, 72.8258 Bombay (Mumbai) 1.2833, 103.8500 Singapore 24.66767, 118.64379 Yakou 22.1667, 113.5500 Macao 51.5142, -0.0931 London Peter D. Thilly
People pursued opium profits within discrete physical spaces. These spaces shaped decision making, instilling confidence or exposing vulnerabilities, embodying opportunities to enhance profitability, decrease risk, or manipulate the competition. Below is a list of some of the spaces that I have identified as important to the spatial history of profit. Visitors to the module are encouraged to compile their own lists, and to connect the significance of some of these physical spaces to those occurring in other modules.
Boats:
- The receiving ships at Lintin and in Shenhu Bay and along the coast. These were stationary vessels captained by British employees of Jardine-Matheson and their competitors, and crewed by sailors from all over the world. These ships rarely moved locations, and operated as floating warehouses. One of the fullest pictures of life on these receiving ships can be found in a travelogue by the American dentist, B.L. Bell (this account is from over a decade after the events of this module take place).
- Smaller, fast ships like the Fairy that made rapid and repeated voyages between the receiving ships anchored on the coast in places like Shenhu Bay and the company's central receiving ship at Lintin.
- Opium clippers like the Red Rover that voyaged between India (Calcutta or Bombay), Singapore, and the receiving ships at Lintin. Perhaps the most exciting examination of life aboard these opium clippers can be found in the Ibis Trilogy by author Amitav Ghosh.
Villages, Towns, and Cities:
- Yakou Village, a small coastal town dominated by the Shi lineage. This is where Shi Hou and his kinsmen operated a massive smuggling ring, positioning themselves as middlemen between Chinese buyers and British opium importers.
- Macao, a Portuguese colonial outpost in the Pearl River Delta near Lintin. One important function of Macao as a physical space was as a meeting place and job market for Chinese brokers to link up with British ship captains like the Rees Brothers to arrange trips up the coast.
- The Canton Factories, just outside of the Guangzhou city gates. This is where the leadership of the Jardine-Matheson company kept their offices, arranging deals with prominent Chinese merchants, interacting with the representatives of the Qing state, and overseeing the correspondence of the company's global network.
- Other cities like Calcutta, Singapore, Bombay, and London.
Anchorages:
- Neither fully on shore, nor fully out at sea, anchorages like Shenhu Bay and Lintin were also important physical spaces in this story. As the video I took from the beach at Yakou demonstrates, the anchorages were in plain sight of the shore. In the 1830s, a veritable fleet of fishing and trading sailboats would have passed back and forth past them each day.

Yakou Village

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Module Layout

A note about the main character:

Spatial History questions for The Case Against Shi Hou

Boats:

Villages, Towns, and Cities:

Anchorages:

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